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Advancing the Science of Ultrasound Guided Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine

Reference List

Acquiring Knowledge - Where to Find Useful Resources?

Arun Prasad, MBBS, DA, FRCA, FRCPC
Assistant Professor
Department of Anesthesia
Toronto Western Hospital
Toronto ON, Canada

General Articles

Basic principles

  • Sites BD, Brull R, Chan VW, Spence BC, Gallagher J, Beach ML, Sites VR, Hartman GS. Artifacts and pitfall errors associated with ultrasound-guided regional anesthesia. Part I: understanding the basic principles of ultrasound physics and machine operations. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2007;32:412-8.
  • Sites BD, Brull R, Chan VW, Spence BC, Gallagher J, Beach ML, Sites VR, Abbas S, Hartman GS. Artifacts and pitfall errors associated with ultrasound-guided regional anesthesia. Part II: a pictorial approach to understanding and avoidance. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2007;32:419-33.
  • Bloc S, Ecoffey C, Dhonneur G. Controlling needle tip progression during ultrasound-guided regional anesthesia using the hydrolocalization technique. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2008;33:382-3.
  • Tsui BC, Dillane D. Needle puncture site and a "walkdown" approach for short-axis alignment during ultrasound-guided blocks. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2006;31:586-7.
  • Chapman GA, Johnson D, Bodenham AR. Visualisation of needle position using ultrasonography. Anaesthesia 2006;61:148-58.
  • Tsui BC, Kropelin B. The electrophysiological effect of dextrose 5% in water on single-shot peripheral nerve stimulation. Anesth Analg 2005;100:1837-9.
  • Tsui BC, Finucane B. Practical recommendations for improving needle-tip visibility under ultrasound guidance? Reg Anesth Pain Med 2005;30:596-7; author reply 7-8.

Review articles

  • Sites BD, Spence BC, Gallagher J, Beach ML, Antonakakis JG, Sites VR, Hartman GS. Regional anesthesia meets ultrasound: a specialty in transition. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2008;52:456-66.
  • Koscielniak-Nielsen ZJ. Ultrasound-guided peripheral nerve blocks: what are the benefits? Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2008;52:727-37.
  • Gofeld M. Ultrasonography in pain medicine: a critical review. Pain Pract 2008;8:226-40.
  • Chin KJ, Chan V. Ultrasound-guided peripheral nerve blockade. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2008;21:624-31.
  • Wiebalck A, Grau T. Ultrasound imaging techniques for regional blocks in intensive care patients. Crit Care Med 2007;35:S268-74.
  • Nolsoe CP, Lorentzen T, Skjoldbye BO, Bachmann Nielsen M. The basics of interventional ultrasound. Ultraschall Med 2007;28:248-63; quiz 64, 67.
  • Marhofer P, Chan VW. Ultrasound-guided regional anesthesia: current concepts and future trends. Anesth Analg 2007;104:1265-9, tables of contents.
  • Hopkins PM. Ultrasound guidance as a gold standard in regional anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 2007;98:299-301.
  • Brull R, Perlas A, Chan VW. Ultrasound-guided peripheral nerve blockade. Curr Pain Headache Rep 2007;11:25-32.
  • Sites BD, Brull R. Ultrasound guidance in peripheral regional anesthesia: philosophy, evidence-based medicine, and techniques. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2006;19:630-9.
  • Marhofer P, Frickey N. Ultrasonographic guidance in pediatric regional anesthesia Part 1: Theoretical background. Paediatr Anaesth 2006;16:1008-18.
  • Roberts S. Ultrasonographic guidance in pediatric regional anesthesia. Part 2: techniques. Paediatr Anaesth 2006;16:1112-24.
  • Popovic J, Morimoto M, Wambold D, Blanck TJ, Rosenberg AD. Current practice of ultrasound-assisted regional anesthesia. Pain Pract 2006;6:127-34.
  • Marhofer P, Willschke H, Kettner S. Imaging techniques for regional nerve blockade and vascular cannulation in children. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2006;19:293-300.
  • Gray AT. Ultrasound-guided regional anesthesia: current state of the art. Anesthesiology 2006;104:368-73, discussion 5A.
  • Marhofer P, Greher M, Kapral S. Ultrasound guidance in regional anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 2005;94:7-17.
  • Gray AT. Role of ultrasound in startup regional anesthesia practice for outpatients. Int Anesthesiol Clin 2005;43:69-78.
  • De Andres J, Sala-Blanch X. Ultrasound in the practice of brachial plexus anesthesia. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2002;27:77-89.

Learning UGRA

  • Tsui B, Dillane D, Pillay J, Walji A. Ultrasound imaging in cadavers: training in imaging for regional blockade at the trunk. Can J Anaesth 2008;55:105-11.
  • Pollard BA. New model for learning ultrasound-guided needle to target localization. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2008;33:360-2.
  • Ecoffey C, Estebe JP. [From neurostimulation to ultrasound-guided block: A revolution for daily clinical practice and training of the regional anaesthesia.]. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim 2008.
  • Dessieux T, Estebe JP, Bloc S, Mercadal L, Ecoffey C. [Evaluation of the learning curve of residents in localizing a phantom target with ultrasonography.]. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim 2008.
  • de Oliveira Filho GR, Helayel PE, da Conceicao DB, Garzel IS, Pavei P, Ceccon MS. Learning curves and mathematical models for interventional ultrasound basic skills. Anesth Analg 2008;106:568-73.
  • Soffer RJ, Rosenblatt MA. Teaching ultrasound-guided interscalene blocks: description of a simple and effective technique. J Clin Anesth 2007;19:241-2.
  • Tsui BC. "Credentials" in ultrasound-guided regional blocks. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2006;31:587-8.
  • Broking K, Waurick R. How to teach regional anesthesia. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2006;19:526-30.
  • Sites BD, Gallagher JD, Cravero J, Lundberg J, Blike G. The learning curve associated with a simulated ultrasound-guided interventional task by inexperienced anesthesia residents. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2004;29:544-8.

Ultrasound equipment and technological advances

  • Swenson JD, Brown NA. Evaluation of a new fenestrated needle for ultrasound-guided fascia iliaca block. J Clin Anesth 2007;19:175-9.
  • Maecken T, Zenz M, Grau T. Ultrasound characteristics of needles for regional anesthesia. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2007;32:440-7.
  • Klein SM, Fronheiser MP, Reach J, Nielsen KC, Smith SW. Piezoelectric vibrating needle and catheter for enhancing ultrasound-guided peripheral nerve blocks. Anesth Analg 2007;105:1858-60.
  • Foxall GL, Hardman JG, Bedforth NM. Three-dimensional, multiplanar, ultrasound-guided, radial nerve block. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2007;32:516-21.
  • Feinglass NG, Clendenen SR, Torp KD, Wang RD, Castello R, Greengrass RA. Real-time three-dimensional ultrasound for continuous popliteal blockade: a case report and image description. Anesth Analg 2007;105:272-4.
  • Deam RK, Kluger R, Barrington MJ, McCutcheon CA. Investigation of a new echogenic needle for use with ultrasound peripheral nerve blocks. Anaesth Intensive Care 2007;35:582-6.
  • Schafhalter-Zoppoth I, McCulloch CE, Gray AT. Ultrasound visibility of needles used for regional nerve block: an in vitro study. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2004;29:480-8.

Descriptive Studies - Upper limb blocks

A. Interscalene block

  • Roessel T, Wiessner D, Heller AR, Zimmermann T, Koch T, Litz RJ. High-resolution ultrasound-guided high interscalene plexus block for carotid endarterectomy. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2007;32:247-53.
  • Chan VW. Applying ultrasound imaging to interscalene brachial plexus block. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2003;28:340-3.

B. Supraclavicular block

  • Soares LG, Brull R, Lai J, Chan VW. Eight ball, corner pocket: the optimal needle position for ultrasound-guided supraclavicular block. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2007;32:94-5.
  • Collins AB, Gray AT, Kessler J. Ultrasound-guided supraclavicular brachial plexus block: a modified Plumb-Bob technique. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2006;31:591-2.
  • Chan VW, Perlas A, Rawson R, Odukoya O. Ultrasound-guided supraclavicular brachial plexus block. Anesth Analg 2003;97:1514-7.

C. Infraclavicular block

  • Sandhu NS, Manne JS, Medabalmi PK, Capan LM. Sonographically guided infraclavicular brachial plexus block in adults: a retrospective analysis of 1146 cases. J Ultrasound Med 2006;25:1555-61.
  • Bigeleisen P, Wilson M. A comparison of two techniques for ultrasound guided infraclavicular block. Br J Anaesth 2006;96:502-7.
  • Marhofer P, Sitzwohl C, Greher M, Kapral S. Ultrasound guidance for infraclavicular brachial plexus anaesthesia in children. Anaesthesia 2004;59:642-6.
  • Sandhu NS, Capan LM. Ultrasound-guided infraclavicular brachial plexus block. Br J Anaesth 2002;89:254-9.
  • Ootaki C, Hayashi H, Amano M. Ultrasound-guided infraclavicular brachial plexus block: an alternative technique to anatomical landmark-guided approaches. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2000;25:600-4.

D. Axillary

  • Retzl G, Kapral S, Greher M, Mauritz W. Ultrasonographic findings of the axillary part of the brachial plexus. Anesth Analg 2001;92:1271-5.

E. Other upper limb blocks

  • van Geffen GJ, Rettig HC, Koornwinder T, Renes S, Gielen MJ. Ultrasound-guided training in the performance of brachial plexus block by the posterior approach: an observational study. Anaesthesia 2007;62:1024-8.
  • Hebbard P, Royse C. Ultrasound guided posterior approach to the infraclavicular brachial plexus. Anaesthesia 2007;62:539.
  • Harmon D, Hearty C. Ultrasound-guided suprascapular nerve block technique. Pain Physician 2007;10:743-6.
  • Perlas A, Chan VW, Simons M. Brachial plexus examination and localization using ultrasound and electrical stimulation: a volunteer study. Anesthesiology 2003;99:429-35.

F. Peripheral nerve blocks

  • Anagnostopoulou S, Saranteas T, Chantzi C, Dimitriou V, Karabinis A, Kostopanagiotou G. Ultrasound identification of the radial nerve and its divisions. Is rescue nerve block at or below the elbow possible? Anaesth Intensive Care 2008;36:457-9.
  • McCartney CJ, Xu D, Constantinescu C, Abbas S, Chan VW. Ultrasound examination of peripheral nerves in the forearm. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2007;32:434-9.
  • Foxall GL, Skinner D, Hardman JG, Bedforth NM. Ultrasound anatomy of the radial nerve in the distal upper arm. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2007;32:217-20.
  • Spence BC, Sites BD, Beach ML. Ultrasound-guided musculocutaneous nerve block: a description of a novel technique. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2005;30:198-201.
  • Schafhalter-Zoppoth I, Gray AT. The musculocutaneous nerve: ultrasound appearance for peripheral nerve block. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2005;30:385-90.
  • Gray AT, Schafhalter-Zoppoth I. Ultrasound guidance for ulnar nerve block in the forearm. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2003;28:335-9.

Descriptive Studies - Lower limb blocks

A. Lumbar plexus

  • Karmakar MK, Ho AM, Li X, Kwok WH, Tsang K, Ngan Kee WD. Ultrasound-guided lumbar plexus block through the acoustic window of the lumbar ultrasound trident. Br J Anaesth 2008;100:533-7.
  • Kirchmair L, Enna B, Mitterschiffthaler G, Moriggl B, Greher M, Marhofer P, Kapral S, Gassner I. Lumbar plexus in children. A sonographic study and its relevance to pediatric regional anesthesia. Anesthesiology 2004;101:445-50.
  • Kirchmair L, Entner T, Kapral S, Mitterschiffthaler G. Ultrasound guidance for the psoas compartment block: an imaging study. Anesth Analg 2002;94:706-10; table of contents.
  • Kirchmair L, Entner T, Wissel J, Moriggl B, Kapral S, Mitterschiffthaler G. A study of the paravertebral anatomy for ultrasound-guided posterior lumbar plexus block. Anesth Analg 2001;93:477-81, 4th contents page.

B. Lateral femoral cutaneous nerve

  • Tumber PS, Bhatia A, Chan VW. Ultrasound-guided lateral femoral cutaneous nerve block for meralgia paresthetica. Anesth Analg 2008;106:1021-2.
  • Ng I, Vaghadia H, Choi PT, Helmy N. Ultrasound imaging accurately identifies the lateral femoral cutaneous nerve. Anesth Analg 2008;107:1070-4.
  • Hurdle MF, Weingarten TN, Crisostomo RA, Psimos C, Smith J. Ultrasound-guided blockade of the lateral femoral cutaneous nerve: technical description and review of 10 cases. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2007;88:1362-4.

C. Obturator nerve

  • Soong J, Schafhalter-Zoppoth I, Gray AT. Sonographic imaging of the obturator nerve for regional block. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2007;32:146-51.
  • Helayel PE, da Conceicao DB, Pavei P, Knaesel JA, de Oliveira Filho GR. Ultrasound-guided obturator nerve block: a preliminary report of a case series. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2007;32:221-6.
  • Fujiwara Y, Sato Y, Kitayama M, Shibata Y, Komatsu T, Hirota K. Obturator nerve block using ultrasound guidance. Anesth Analg 2007;105:888-9.

D. Saphenous nerve

  • Krombach J, Gray AT. Sonography for saphenous nerve block near the adductor canal. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2007;32:369-70.

E. Sciatic nerve

  • Barrington MJ, Lai SL, Briggs CA, Ivanusic JJ, Gledhill SR. Ultrasound-guided midthigh sciatic nerve block-a clinical and anatomical study. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2008;33:369-76.
  • Saranteas T, Chantzi C, Paraskeuopoulos T, Alevizou A, Zogojiannis J, Dimitriou V, Kostopanagiotou G. Imaging in anesthesia: the role of 4 MHz to 7 MHz sector array ultrasound probe in the identification of the sciatic nerve at different anatomic locations. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2007;32:537-8.
  • Karmakar MK, Kwok WH, Ho AM, Tsang K, Chui PT, Gin T. Ultrasound-guided sciatic nerve block: description of a new approach at the subgluteal space. Br J Anaesth 2007;98:390-5.
  • van Geffen GJ, Gielen M. Ultrasound-guided subgluteal sciatic nerve blocks with stimulating catheters in children: a descriptive study. Anesth Analg 2006;103:328-33, table of contents.
  • Chan VW, Nova H, Abbas S, McCartney CJ, Perlas A, Xu DQ. Ultrasound examination and localization of the sciatic nerve: a volunteer study. Anesthesiology 2006;104:309-14, discussion 5A.
  • Sinha A, Chan VW. Ultrasound imaging for popliteal sciatic nerve block. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2004;29:130-4.
  • McCartney CJ, Brauner I, Chan VW. Ultrasound guidance for a lateral approach to the sciatic nerve in the popliteal fossa. Anaesthesia 2004;59:1023-5.

F. Ankle block

  • Soares LG, Brull R, Chan VW. Teaching an old block a new trick: ultrasound-guided posterior tibial nerve block. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2008;52:446-7.

G. Other blocks of the lower limb

  • Lundblad M, Kapral S, Marhofer P, Lonnqvist PA. Ultrasound-guided infrapatellar nerve block in human volunteers: description of a novel technique. Br J Anaesth 2006;97:710-4.

Truncal blocks

  • Laghari ZA, Harmon D. Ultrasound-guided transabdominus plane block. J Clin Anesth 2008;20:156-8.
  • Sandeman DJ, Dilley AV. Ultrasound-guided rectus sheath block and catheter placement. ANZ J Surg 2008;78:621-3.
  • Willschke H, Bosenberg A, Marhofer P, Johnston S, Kettner SC, Wanzel O, Kapral S. Ultrasonography-guided rectus sheath block in paediatric anaesthesia--a new approach to an old technique. Br J Anaesth 2006;97:244-9.
  • Gofeld M, Christakis M. Sonographically guided ilioinguinal nerve block. J Ultrasound Med 2006;25:1571-5.
  • Eichenberger U, Greher M, Kirchmair L, Curatolo M, Moriggl B. Ultrasound-guided blocks of the ilioinguinal and iliohypogastric nerve: accuracy of a selective new technique confirmed by anatomical dissection. Br J Anaesth 2006;97:238-43.

Central neuraxial blocks

  • Lee Y, Tanaka M, Carvalho JC. Sonoanatomy of the lumbar spine in patients with previous unintentional dural punctures during labor epidurals. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2008;33:266-70.
  • Carvalho JC. Ultrasound-facilitated epidurals and spinals in obstetrics. Anesthesiol Clin 2008;26:145-58, vii-viii.
  • Willschke H, Bosenberg A, Marhofer P, Willschke J, Schwindt J, Weintraud M, Kapral S, Kettner S. Epidural catheter placement in neonates: sonoanatomy and feasibility of ultrasonographic guidance in term and preterm neonates. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2007;32:34-40.
  • Kil HK, Cho JE, Kim WO, Koo BN, Han SW, Kim JY. Prepuncture ultrasound-measured distance: an accurate reflection of epidural depth in infants and small children. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2007;32:102-6.
  • Ferre RM, Sweeney TW. Emergency physicians can easily obtain ultrasound images of anatomical landmarks relevant to lumbar puncture. Am J Emerg Med 2007;25:291-6.
  • Arzola C, Davies S, Rofaeel A, Carvalho JC. Ultrasound using the transverse approach to the lumbar spine provides reliable landmarks for labor epidurals. Anesth Analg 2007;104:1188-92.
  • Willschke H, Marhofer P, Bosenberg A, Johnston S, Wanzel O, Sitzwohl C, Kettner S, Kapral S. Epidural catheter placement in children: comparing a novel approach using ultrasound guidance and a standard loss-of-resistance technique. Br J Anaesth 2006;97:200-7.
  • Park JH, Koo BN, Kim JY, Cho JE, Kim WO, Kil HK. Determination of the optimal angle for needle insertion during caudal block in children using ultrasound imaging. Anaesthesia 2006;61:946-9.
  • Grau T. [Ultrasound directed punctures in neuro-axial regional anesthesia]. Anasthesiol Intensivmed Notfallmed Schmerzther 2006;41:262-5.
  • Roberts SA, Guruswamy V, Galvez I. Caudal injectate can be reliably imaged using portable ultrasound--a preliminary study. Paediatr Anaesth 2005;15:948-52.
  • Rapp HJ, Folger A, Grau T. Ultrasound-guided epidural catheter insertion in children. Anesth Analg 2005;101:333-9.
  • Marhofer P, Bosenberg A, Sitzwohl C, Willschke H, Wanzel O, Kapral S. Pilot study of neuraxial imaging by ultrasound in infants and children. Paediatr Anaesth 2005;15:671-6.
  • Grau T, Leipold RW, Fatehi S, Martin E, Motsch J. Real-time ultrasonic observation of combined spinal-epidural anaesthesia. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2004;21:25-31.
  • Watson MJ, Evans S, Thorp JM. Could ultrasonography be used by an anaesthetist to identify a specified lumbar interspace before spinal anaesthesia? Br J Anaesth 2003;90:509-11.
  • Grau T, Bartusseck E, Conradi R, Martin E, Motsch J. Ultrasound imaging improves learning curves in obstetric epidural anesthesia: a preliminary study. Can J Anaesth 2003;50:1047-50.
  • Grau T, Leipold RW, Delorme S, Martin E, Motsch J. Ultrasound imaging of the thoracic epidural space. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2002;27:200-6.
  • Grau T, Leipold RW, Conradi R, Martin E, Motsch J. Efficacy of ultrasound imaging in obstetric epidural anesthesia. J Clin Anesth 2002;14:169-75.
  • Furness G, Reilly MP, Kuchi S. An evaluation of ultrasound imaging for identification of lumbar intervertebral level. Anaesthesia 2002;57:277-80.
  • Grau T, Leipold RW, Horter J, Martin E, Motsch J. Colour Doppler imaging of the interspinous and epidural space. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2001;18:706-12.
  • Grau T, Leipold RW, Horter J, Conradi R, Martin EO, Motsch J. Paramedian access to the epidural space: the optimum window for ultrasound imaging. J Clin Anesth 2001;13:213-7.
  • Grau T, Leipold RW, Horter J, Conradi R, Martin E, Motsch J. The lumbar epidural space in pregnancy: visualization by ultrasonography. Br J Anaesth 2001;86:798-804.
  • Grau T, Leipold RW, Conradi R, Martin E, Motsch J. Ultrasound imaging facilitates localization of the epidural space during combined spinal and epidural anesthesia. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2001;26:64-7.

Other blocks

  • Rofaeel A, Peng P, Louis I, Chan V. Feasibility of real-time ultrasound for pudendal nerve block in patients with chronic perineal pain. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2008;33:139-45.
  • Okuda Y, Kamishima K, Arai T, Asai T. Combined use of ultrasound and nerve stimulation for phrenic nerve block. Can J Anaesth 2008;55:195-6.
  • Harmon D, O'Sullivan M. Ultrasound-guided sacroiliac joint injection technique. Pain Physician 2008;11:543-7.
  • Shibata Y, Fujiwara Y, Komatsu T. A new approach of ultrasound-guided stellate ganglion block. Anesth Analg 2007;105:550-1.
  • Sandeman DJ, Dilley AV. Ultrasound guided dorsal penile nerve block in children. Anaesth Intensive Care 2007;35:266-9.
  • Sandeman DJ, Griffiths MJ, Lennox AF. Ultrasound guided deep cervical plexus block. Anaesth Intensive Care 2006;34:240-4.

Comparative Studies Ultrasound versus neurostimulation or landmark-guided techniques

Upper limb

  • Kapral S, Greher M, Huber G, Willschke H, Kettner S, Kdolsky R, Marhofer P. Ultrasonographic guidance improves the success rate of interscalene brachial plexus blockade. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2008;33:253-8.
  • Sauter AR, Dodgson MS, Stubhaug A, Halstensen AM, Klaastad O. Electrical nerve stimulation or ultrasound guidance for lateral sagittal infraclavicular blocks: a randomized, controlled, observer-blinded, comparative study. Anesth Analg 2008;106:1910-5.
  • Tran de QH, Clemente A, Tran DQ, Finlayson RJ. A comparison between ultrasound-guided infraclavicular block using the "double bubble" sign and neurostimulation-guided axillary block. Anesth Analg 2008;107:1075-8.
  • Casati A, Danelli G, Baciarello M, Corradi M, Leone S, Di Cianni S, Fanelli G. A prospective, randomized comparison between ultrasound and nerve stimulation guidance for multiple injection axillary brachial plexus block. Anesthesiology 2007;106:992-6.
  • Chan VW, Perlas A, McCartney CJ, Brull R, Xu D, Abbas S. Ultrasound guidance improves success rate of axillary brachial plexus block. Can J Anaesth 2007;54:176-82.
  • Orebaugh SL, Williams BA, Kentor ML. Ultrasound guidance with nerve stimulation reduces the time necessary for resident peripheral nerve blockade. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2007;32:448-54.
  • Sites BD, Beach ML, Spence BC, Wiley CW, Shiffrin J, Hartman GS, Gallagher JD. Ultrasound guidance improves the success rate of a perivascular axillary plexus block. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2006;50:678-84.
  • Schwemmer U, Schleppers A, Markus C, Kredel M, Kirschner S, Roewer N. Operative management in axillary brachial plexus blocks : Comparison of ultrasound and nerve stimulation. Anaesthesist 2006;55:451-6.
  • Soeding PE, Sha S, Royse CE, Marks P, Hoy G, Royse AG. A randomized trial of ultrasound-guided brachial plexus anaesthesia in upper limb surgery. Anaesth Intensive Care 2005;33:719-25.
  • Liu FC, Liou JT, Tsai YF, Li AH, Day YY, Hui YL, Lui PW. Efficacy of ultrasound-guided axillary brachial plexus block: a comparative study with nerve stimulator-guided method. Chang Gung Med J 2005;28:396-402.
  • Williams SR, Chouinard P, Arcand G, Harris P, Ruel M, Boudreault D, Girard F. Ultrasound guidance speeds execution and improves the quality of supraclavicular block. Anesth Analg 2003;97:1518-23.

Lower limb

  • Perlas A, Brull R, Chan VW, McCartney CJ, Nuica A, Abbas S. Ultrasound guidance improves the success of sciatic nerve block at the popliteal fossa. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2008;33:259-65.
  • Dufour E, Quennesson P, Van Robais AL, Ledon F, Laloe PA, Liu N, Fischler M. Combined ultrasound and neurostimulation guidance for popliteal sciatic nerve block: a prospective, randomized comparison with neurostimulation alone. Anesth Analg 2008;106:1553-8.
  • Domingo-Triado V, Selfa S, Martinez F, Sanchez-Contreras D, Reche M, Tecles J, Crespo MT, Palanca JM, Moro B. Ultrasound guidance for lateral midfemoral sciatic nerve block: a prospective, comparative, randomized study. Anesth Analg 2007;104:1270-4.
  • Oberndorfer U, Marhofer P, Bosenberg A, Willschke H, Felfernig M, Weintraud M, Kapral S, Kettner SC. Ultrasonographic guidance for sciatic and femoral nerve blocks in children. Br J Anaesth 2007;98:797-801.

Other blocks

  • Willschke H, Marhofer P, Bosenberg A, Johnston S, Wanzel O, Cox SG, Sitzwohl C, Kapral S. Ultrasonography for ilioinguinal/iliohypogastric nerve blocks in children. Br J Anaesth 2005;95:226-30.

Ultrasound only versus ultrasound + neurostimulation techniques

Upper limb

  • Dingemans E, Williams SR, Arcand G, Chouinard P, Harris P, Ruel M, Girard F. Neurostimulation in ultrasound-guided infraclavicular block: a prospective randomized trial. Anesth Analg 2007;104:1275-80.
  • Beach ML, Sites BD, Gallagher JD. Use of a nerve stimulator does not improve the efficacy of ultrasound-guided supraclavicular nerve blocks. J Clin Anesth 2006;18:580-4.

Comparison of ultrasound-guided techniques

Upper limb

  • De Jose Maria B, Banus E, Navarro Egea M, Serrano S, Perello M, Mabrok M. Ultrasound-guided supraclavicular vs infraclavicular brachial plexus blocks in children. Paediatr Anaesth 2008;18:838-44.
  • Arcand G, Williams SR, Chouinard P, Boudreault D, Harris P, Ruel M, Girard F. Ultrasound-guided infraclavicular versus supraclavicular block. Anesth Analg 2005;101:886-90.

Special Features of UGRA Evaluation of local anesthetic spread

Upper limb

  • Bloc S, Garnier T, Komly B, Asfazadourian H, Leclerc P, Mercadal L, Morel B, Dhonneur G. Spread of injectate associated with radial or median nerve-type motor response during infraclavicular brachial-plexus block: an ultrasound evaluation. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2007;32:130-5.

Other blocks

  • Weintraud M, Marhofer P, Bosenberg A, Kapral S, Willschke H, Felfernig M, Kettner S. Ilioinguinal/iliohypogastric blocks in children: where do we administer the local anesthetic without direct visualization? Anesth Analg 2008;106:89-93, table of contents.

Evaluation of motor response to neurostimulation

Upper limb

  • Sinha SK, Abrams JH, Weller RS. Ultrasound-guided interscalene needle placement produces successful anesthesia regardless of motor stimulation above or below 0.5 mA. Anesth Analg 2007;105:848-52.
  • Perlas A, Niazi A, McCartney C, Chan V, Xu D, Abbas S. The sensitivity of motor response to nerve stimulation and paresthesia for nerve localization as evaluated by ultrasound. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2006;31:445-50.

Lower limb

  • Sites BD, Gallagher J, Sparks M. Ultrasound-guided popliteal block demonstrates an atypical motor response to nerve stimulation in 2 patients with diabetes mellitus. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2003;28:479-82.

Effect on minimum effective anesthetic volume

Upper limb

  • Riazi S, Carmichael N, Awad I, Holtby RM, McCartney CJ. Effect of local anaesthetic volume (20 vs 5 ml) on the efficacy and respiratory consequences of ultrasound-guided interscalene brachial plexus block. Br J Anaesth 2008;101:549-56.
  • Sandhu NS, Bahniwal CS, Capan LM. Feasibility of an infraclavicular block with a reduced volume of lidocaine with sonographic guidance. J Ultrasound Med 2006;25:51-6.

Lower limb

  • Casati A, Baciarello M, Di Cianni S, Danelli G, De Marco G, Leone S, Rossi M, Fanelli G. Effects of ultrasound guidance on the minimum effective anaesthetic volume required to block the femoral nerve. Br J Anaesth 2007;98:823-7.
  • Marhofer P, Schrogendorfer K, Wallner T, Koinig H, Mayer N, Kapral S. Ultrasonographic guidance reduces the amount of local anesthetic for 3-in-1 blocks. Reg Anesth Pain Med 1998;23:584-8.

Other blocks

  • Willschke H, Bosenberg A, Marhofer P, Johnston S, Kettner S, Eichenberger U, Wanzel O, Kapral S. Ultrasonographic-guided ilioinguinal/iliohypogastric nerve block in pediatric anesthesia: what is the optimal volume? Anesth Analg 2006;102:1680-4.

Special Applications of UGRA Pediatric regional anesthesia

Upper limb

  • De Jose Maria B, Banus E, Navarro Egea M, Serrano S, Perello M, Mabrok M. Ultrasound-guided supraclavicular vs infraclavicular brachial plexus blocks in children. Paediatr Anaesth 2008;18:838-44.
  • Jan van Geffen G, Tielens L, Gielen M. Ultrasound-guided interscalene brachial plexus block in a child with femur fibula ulna syndrome. Paediatr Anaesth 2006;16:330-2.
  • Marhofer P, Sitzwohl C, Greher M, Kapral S. Ultrasound guidance for infraclavicular brachial plexus anaesthesia in children. Anaesthesia 2004;59:642-6.

Lower limb

  • van Geffen GJ, Gielen M. Ultrasound-guided subgluteal sciatic nerve blocks with stimulating catheters in children: a descriptive study. Anesth Analg 2006;103:328-33, table of contents.
  • Kirchmair L, Enna B, Mitterschiffthaler G, Moriggl B, Greher M, Marhofer P, Kapral S, Gassner I. Lumbar plexus in children. A sonographic study and its relevance to pediatric regional anesthesia. Anesthesiology 2004;101:445-50.

Truncal blocks

  • Weintraud M, Marhofer P, Bosenberg A, Kapral S, Willschke H, Felfernig M, Kettner S. Ilioinguinal/iliohypogastric blocks in children: where do we administer the local anesthetic without direct visualization? Anesth Analg 2008;106:89-93.
  • Willschke H, Bosenberg A, Marhofer P, Johnston S, Kettner SC, Wanzel O, Kapral S. Ultrasonography-guided rectus sheath block in paediatric anaesthesia--a new approach to an old technique. Br J Anaesth 2006;97:244-9.
  • Willschke H, Marhofer P, Bosenberg A, Johnston S, Wanzel O, Cox SG, Sitzwohl C, Kapral S. Ultrasonography for ilioinguinal/iliohypogastric nerve blocks in children. Br J Anaesth 2005;95:226-30.
  • de Jose Maria B, Gotzens V, Mabrok M. Ultrasound-guided umbilical nerve block in children: a brief description of a new approach. Paediatr Anaesth 2007;17:44-50.
  • Willschke H, Bosenberg A, Marhofer P, Johnston S, Kettner S, Eichenberger U, Wanzel O, Kapral S. Ultrasonographic-guided ilioinguinal/iliohypogastric nerve block in pediatric anesthesia: what is the optimal volume? Anesth Analg 2006;102:1680-4.

Caudals

  • Schwartz D, Raghunathan K, Dunn S, Connelly NR. Ultrasonography and pediatric caudals. Anesth Analg 2008;106:97-9, table of contents.
  • Schwartz DA, Dunn SM, Connelly NR. Ultrasound and caudal blocks in children. Paediatr Anaesth 2006;16:900-1.
  • Park JH, Koo BN, Kim JY, Cho JE, Kim WO, Kil HK. Determination of the optimal angle for needle insertion during caudal block in children using ultrasound imaging. Anaesthesia 2006;61:946-9.
  • Roberts SA, Guruswamy V, Galvez I. Caudal injectate can be reliably imaged using portable ultrasound--a preliminary study. Paediatr Anaesth 2005;15:948-52.

Epidurals

  • Willschke H, Bosenberg A, Marhofer P, Willschke J, Schwindt J, Weintraud M, Kapral S, Kettner S. Epidural catheter placement in neonates: sonoanatomy and feasibility of ultrasonographic guidance in term and preterm neonates. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2007;32:34-40.
  • Kil HK, Cho JE, Kim WO, Koo BN, Han SW, Kim JY. Prepuncture ultrasound-measured distance: an accurate reflection of epidural depth in infants and small children. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2007;32:102-6.
  • Willschke H, Marhofer P, Bosenberg A, Johnston S, Wanzel O, Sitzwohl C, Kettner S, Kapral S. Epidural catheter placement in children: comparing a novel approach using ultrasound guidance and a standard loss-of-resistance technique. Br J Anaesth 2006;97:200-7.
  • Rapp HJ, Folger A, Grau T. Ultrasound-guided epidural catheter insertion in children. Anesth Analg 2005;101:333-9.
  • Marhofer P, Bosenberg A, Sitzwohl C, Willschke H, Wanzel O, Kapral S. Pilot study of neuraxial imaging by ultrasound in infants and children. Paediatr Anaesth 2005;15:671-6.

Other blocks and reviews

  • Sandeman DJ, Dilley AV. Ultrasound guided dorsal penile nerve block in children. Anaesth Intensive Care 2007;35:266-9.
  • Marhofer P, Frickey N. Ultrasonographic guidance in pediatric regional anesthesia Part 1: Theoretical background. Paediatr Anaesth 2006;16:1008-18.
  • Roberts S. Ultrasonographic guidance in pediatric regional anesthesia. Part 2: techniques. Paediatr Anaesth 2006;16:1112-24.
  • Marhofer P, Willschke H, Kettner S. Imaging techniques for regional nerve blockade and vascular cannulation in children. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2006;19:293-300.
  • Rapp HJ, Grau T. Ultrasound imaging in pediatric regional anesthesia. Can J Anaesth 2004;51:277-8.

Continuous catheter techniques

  • Swenson JD, Davis JJ, DeCou JA. A novel approach for assessing catheter position after ultrasound-guided placement of continuous interscalene block. Anesth Analg 2008;106:1015-6.
  • Fredrickson MJ, Ball CM, Dalgleish AJ. Successful continuous interscalene analgesia for ambulatory shoulder surgery in a private practice setting. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2008;33:122-8.
  • Dhir S, Ganapathy S. Use of ultrasound guidance and contrast enhancement: a study of continuous infraclavicular brachial plexus approach. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2008;52:338-42.
  • Slater ME, Williams SR, Harris P, Brutus JP, Ruel M, Girard F, Boudreault D. Preliminary evaluation of infraclavicular catheters inserted using ultrasound guidance: through-the-catheter anesthesia is not inferior to through-the-needle blocks. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2007;32:296-302.
  • Gucev G, Yasui GM, Chang TY, Lee J. Bilateral ultrasound-guided continuous ilioinguinal-iliohypogastric block for pain relief after cesarean delivery. Anesth Analg 2008;106:1220-2, table of contents.
  • Swenson JD, Bay N, Loose E, Bankhead B, Davis J, Beals TC, Bryan NA, Burks RT, Greis PE. Outpatient management of continuous peripheral nerve catheters placed using ultrasound guidance: an experience in 620 patients. Anesth Analg 2006;103:1436-43.

Application in challenging patients

  • van Geffen GJ, Bruhn J, Gielen MJ, Scheffer GJ. Pain relief in amputee patients by ultrasound-guided nerve blocks. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2008;25:424-5.
  • Robards CB, Iwata T, Somasundaram L, Xu D, Hadzic A. Ultrasound-guided interscalene brachial plexus block in a patient with a ventriculoperitoneal shunt. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2008;33:273-4.
  • Mariano ER, Ilfeld BM, Cheng GS, Nicodemus HF, Suresh S. Feasibility of ultrasound-guided peripheral nerve block catheters for pain control on pediatric medical missions in developing countries. Paediatr Anaesth 2008;18:598-601.
  • Khelemsky Y, Rosenblatt MA. Ultrasound-guided supraclavicular block in a patient anticoagulated with argatroban. Pain Pract 2008;8:152.
  • Guttman OT, Soffer RJ, Rosenblatt MA. The ultrasound-guided supraclavicular-interscalene (UGSCIS) block: a case report. Pain Pract 2008;8:62-4.
  • Dhir S, Balasubramanian S, Ross D. Ultrasound-guided peripheral regional blockade in patients with Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease: a review of three cases. Can J Anaesth 2008;55:515-20.
  • Chin KJ, Niazi A, Chan V. Anomalous brachial plexus anatomy in the supraclavicular region detected by ultrasound. Anesth Analg 2008;107:729-31.
  • Abrahams MS, Panzer O, Atchabahian A, Horn JL, Brown AR. Case report: limitation of local anesthetic spread during ultrasound-guided interscalene block. Description of an anatomic variant with clinical correlation. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2008;33:357-9.
  • van Geffen GJ, McCartney CJ, Gielen M, Chan VW. Ultrasound as the only nerve localization technique for peripheral nerve block. J Clin Anesth 2007;19:381-5.
  • Sites BD, Durham S, Gallagher JD, Bertrand ML. The use of intraoperative ultrasound by anesthesiologists to facilitate the surgical management of peripheral nerve tumors of the upper extremity. Anesth Analg 2007;105:1845-7, table of contents.
  • Bigeleisen PE. Ultrasound-guided infraclavicular block in an anticoagulated and anesthetized patient. Anesth Analg 2007;104:1285-7, tables of contents.
  • Assmann N, McCartney CJ, Tumber PS, Chan VW. Ultrasound guidance for brachial plexus localization and catheter insertion after complete forearm amputation. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2007;32:93.
  • van Geffen GJ, Scheuer M, Muller A, Garderniers J, Gielen M. Ultrasound-guided bilateral continuous sciatic nerve blocks with stimulating catheters for postoperative pain relief after bilateral lower limb amputations. Anaesthesia 2006;61:1204-7.
  • Plunkett AR, Brown DS, Rogers JM, Buckenmaier CC, 3rd. Supraclavicular continuous peripheral nerve block in a wounded soldier: when ultrasound is the only option. Br J Anaesth 2006;97:715-7.
  • Jan van Geffen G, Tielens L, Gielen M. Ultrasound-guided interscalene brachial plexus block in a child with femur fibula ulna syndrome. Paediatr Anaesth 2006;16:330-2.

Application outside the operating room

  • Wiebalck A, Grau T. Ultrasound imaging techniques for regional blocks in intensive care patients. Crit Care Med 2007;35:S268-74.
  • Stone MB, Wang R, Price DD. Ultrasound-guided supraclavicular brachial plexus nerve block vs procedural sedation for the treatment of upper extremity emergencies. Am J Emerg Med 2008;26:706-10.
  • Stone MB, Price DD, Wang R. Ultrasound-guided supraclavicular block for the treatment of upper extremity fractures, dislocations, and abscesses in the ED. Am J Emerg Med 2007;25:472-5.
  • Liebmann O, Price D, Mills C, Gardner R, Wang R, Wilson S, Gray A. Feasibility of forearm ultrasonography-guided nerve blocks of the radial, ulnar, and median nerves for hand procedures in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med 2006;48:558-62.
  • Blaivas M, Lyon M. Ultrasound-guided interscalene block for shoulder dislocation reduction in the ED. Am J Emerg Med 2006;24:293-6.

Safety Data Vascular puncture and intravascular injection

  • Zetlaoui PJ, Labbe JP, Benhamou D. Ultrasound guidance for axillary plexus block does not prevent intravascular injection. Anesthesiology 2008;108:761.
  • VadeBoncouer TR, Weinberg GL, Oswald S, Angelov F. Early detection of intravascular injection during ultrasound-guided supraclavicular brachial plexus block. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2008;33:278-9.
  • Loubert C, Williams SR, Helie F, Arcand G. Complication during ultrasound-guided regional block: accidental intravascular injection of local anesthetic. Anesthesiology 2008;108:759-60.

Neural puncture and intraneural injection

  • Koff MD, Cohen JA, McIntyre JJ, Carr CF, Sites BD. Severe brachial plexopathy after an ultrasound-guided single-injection nerve block for total shoulder arthroplasty in a patient with multiple sclerosis. Anesthesiology 2008;108:325-8.
  • Russon K, Blanco R. Accidental intraneural injection into the musculocutaneous nerve visualized with ultrasound. Anesth Analg 2007;105:1504-5, table of contents.
  • Bigeleisen PE. Nerve puncture and apparent intraneural injection during ultrasound-guided axillary block does not invariably result in neurologic injury. Anesthesiology 2006;105:779-83.
  • Schafhalter-Zoppoth I, Zeitz ID, Gray AT. Inadvertent femoral nerve impalement and intraneural injection visualized by ultrasound. Anesth Analg 2004;99:627-8.

Other complications

  • Narouze S, Vydyanathan A, Patel N. Ultrasound-guided stellate ganglion block successfully prevented esophageal puncture. Pain Physician 2007;10:747-52.
  • Cornish PB, Leaper CJ, Nelson G, Anstis F, McQuillan C, Stienstra R. Avoidance of phrenic nerve paresis during continuous supraclavicular regional anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 2007;62:354-8.
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